The Truth about Child Abuse and Neglect

Herbert Fletcher

The Truth about Child Abuse and Neglect

    During childhood, the home is supposed to be a safe place. It should be a place where a child receives no harm and is able to grow and flourish. Unfortunately, this is not the case for many children. Parents can often be neglectful or even purposefully bring harm to their children. These actions, or lackthereof, can lead to serious developmental roadblocks for the victims. The consequences of the abuse not only affect the children who are abused, but also their families and future relationships. Effects are both physical and emotional, and manifest in different ways, such as having difficulty regulating emotions or their school life. These effects leave a lasting impact on the victims of these awful deeds and prevent innocent and naive children from being able to develop correctly.

    Anne Peterson, a professor at University of Michigan who conducted research on this topic, said “Child abuse and neglect is a serious public health problem which requires immediate, urgent attention,...The consequences can last into adulthood, with significant costs to the individual, to families, and to society.” Although in the past twenty years the rates of child abuse have diminished, the rates of child neglect has remained the same. Both leave long term effects on victims and affect our society as a whole. Neglect and abuse can rob society of emotionally and physically healthy functioning adults. While these crimes can come from anyone, 80% of abuse and neglect is from parents.

    The three main risk factors for child neglect and abuse in parents are: parental depression, parental substance abuse, and if the parent had also been abused as a child. Researchers have attempted to constitute other factors to the fluctuations in the rates of abuse, but nothing appeared to make sense. For example, mortgage foreclosures increased child abuse while increases in unemployment did not. Although the catalysts for abuse and neglect may not be completely clear, what is clear are the overwhelming effects of these actions. The amygdala, which controls emotions and especially fear and anxiety, is affected from abuse. It also changes the way that the brain thinks and develops and leads to academic and behavioral problems.

    The home is intended to be a place where a child feels safe and free from harm; however, many parents neglect and abuse their children which destroys the feeling of safety at home. There are many situations which factor into the occurrence of these heinous and unforgivable behaviors, yet none of them justify the actions. The victims of the abuse are left with scars for life, and are often stunted when it comes to their development. Complications such as poor scholarly tendencies and lack of self-control manifest. Research shows that many of these victims retain these problems in adulthood and have social difficulty. For these reasons, abuse and neglect are terrible actions which hurt the victim, and everyone else who is involved in the situation.

Do Vaccinations Cause Autism?

Emeline Brennan

Pysc PDE #3

Do Vaccinations Cause Autism?

Do Vaccinations cause Autism? This is a controversial subject that warrants exploration of both sides of the issue. Researchers on the subject claim that they continue to find no link between vaccinations and Autism. So sure are researchers that there is no link, the scientific community has reached a clear consensus that vaccines don't cause Autism. (Hall, 2009)

Despite this, the fear of such a link is causing immunization rates to drop which is starting to have a significant impact on public health and even safety. The drop in immunization rates is one of the reasons why measles is making a comeback in the U.K and some parts of the U.S. (Hall, 2009). But the impact is also global. Failure to vaccinate, particularly in areas prone to preventable disease, is leading to more infections. It also puts whole communities in danger. If one person gets sick with the measles or any other communicable disease, it endangers everyone without the vaccination around them, including children and elders.

In 1998, a British doctor named Andrew Wakefield published an article convincing parents of eight children with autism to think there was a connection between the MMR (measles, mumps and rubella) vaccine and their autistic children. Wakefield's article led to a drastic drop in vaccinations in the U.K. It went from 93% to 75% and 50% in the London area, (Hall, 2009). Despite evidence to back up the claim, people believed there was a link.  Some even accused the government of hiding the fact that vaccinations cause Autism. (Hall, 2009)

While vaccines have had tremendous positive effects on global health, they are not without risk, even autism.   It is known that vaccine manufacturers have suppressed harmful data related to their products.  For example, a study has shown that the Hepatitis B vaccine for newborn babies could triple the chance for Autism.  (Walia, 2013). Researchers found a positive link between people with Autism and certain types of vaccinations they were given as a child through adulthood. Autoimmunity to the central nervous system may play a role in Autism.  (Walia, 2013)

Autistic children have an inappropriate or abnormal antibody response to vaccinations like the MMR Many vaccinations can be neurotoxic to the developing brain like the flu vaccination because of the thimerosal found within it. Oxidative stress which is associated with Autism is triggered by heavy metals such as the ones found in multiple vaccinations.  (Walia, 2013) This is for kids who have already been diagnosed with Autism. How can it be said that it was the MMR vaccination that caused it? Or the effect of the flu vaccination? Or even the metals within the vaccinations themselves?

Multiple courts around the world have ruled that vaccines do cause autism, brain damage and other complications including the MMR vaccine. (Walia, 2013)  In reality, looking at both sides is always the best option. Some will say well the courts said this and the doctors said this but in the end people are going to believe what they think is right.

Autism today has no real exact definition or answer. Different Doctors will tell you different things. So how is it fair to say there is a connection between Autism and vaccinations?

Hall, Harriet (June 3, 2009) The Skepdoc: Vaccines and Autism.

http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/09-06-03/?gclid=CjwKEAjwpPCuBRDris2Y7piU2QsSJAD1Qv7BlfKzneon04rvOwrBGBO0AAqcGMgoXzBjC39_KjbUNRoCK9jw_wcB#feature

Kirkland, A. (2012). The Legitimacy of Vaccine Critics: What Is Left after the Autism

Hypothesis?. Journal Of Health Politics, Policy & Law, 37(1), 69-97. doi:10.1215/03616878-1496020

Walia Arjun (September 12, 2013) Activists: Vaccines.

http://www.activistpost.com/2013/09/22-medical-studies-that-show-vaccines.html

How important is physical activity in the lives of school-age children with developmental disorders?

Most people are aware that there are obvious benefits to physical activity for kids in middle childhood in general, such as, lower risk for obesity, learning cooperation and how to be fair with their friends, social engagement with peers, works on their muscles and coordination, etc., but for children with developmental disorders, such as ADHD and ASD, physical activity can play an even bigger role.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a disorder marked by inability to focus, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, is common amongst school-age children. Treatment options for ADHD are very frequently discussed because medication is often expensive and the long-term effects of it are sometimes questioned; therefore, parents are often looking for cheaper, but still efficient alternatives. So far, ADHD cannot be fully cured but the point of treatment is to reduce symptoms so the children can function more attentively and less disruptively in school, extra-curricular activities and with peers.

Research has shown that performance of physical activity for certain increments of time (usually 20 minutes) has helped preadolescent children with ADHD to exhibit better inhibitory control, making them less disruptive and impulsive, which, in turn, helps them display better academic performance. Parents who are against medication may find this research compelling because physical activity is a more natural, less expensive, and less risky approach to helping preadolescent kids with ADHD function better cognitively and behaviorally. These parents may also be pleased because ADHD is known for hindering learning but these recent studies have shown that after doing the physical activity, the children are less likely to act out in school and instead are more attentive and willing to learn. Additionally, the physical activity may have a more progressive effect than medication on the long-term symptoms of ADHD. In one study with a physical activity group (that had the children do schoolwork, then do some sort of exercise for a bit, and then back to schoolwork, and so on) and a control group (that had children perform no physical activity and just do schoolwork straight through), the physical activity group displayed improvements in information processing, attentiveness, and cognition as opposed to the control group.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), characterized by impairments in social skills and communication, very specific and focused interests, and repetitive and unusual behaviors, is another developmental disorder that raises questions in regards to treatment. Just as with ADHD, the treatment for ASD looks to reduce symptoms and improve areas that are lacking due to developmental deficiencies in children with ASD. In recent studies, physical activity done repeatedly in “doses” – like medication would be –  usually between 15-20 minutes proved to have a significant, positive impact on social and motor skills, academic performance and listening to instruction, and the child’s self-confidence and willingness to engage in athletics and other social opportunities. Additionally seen in the conclusions from the studies is reduction in ASD stereotypical, antisocial, and distracted behaviors.

A problem, more with the education system than the children themselves, is that physical activity during school is limited. And not only is it limited, but it’s also seen as a privilege, a reward. Preadolescent kids who act up in class or do not do their work often get recess or outside playtime taken away. Children with developmental disorders often have more trouble learning than others their age; therefore, may need additional, one-on-one time with a teacher/instructor for extra help. This time is very often taken from their recess, which minimizes time for physical activity and socialization.

Overall, the research in these studies showed that increased physical activity would be incredibly beneficial for school-age children with developmental disorders. More research should be done on this topic to discover if it would be reasonable to generalize about these recent studies’ findings on how physical activity can attenuate some of the hindering symptoms of ADHD and ASD. Also, it could become a more holistic, safe, and efficient alternative to pharmaceutical treatment options, which could please many parents. School systems should then take the research into consideration when planning out school days and how to incorporate more exercise in the daily routines of children in middle childhood – especially those children with developmental disorders – because physical activity is for some reason neglected during the school day when it should not be because it has so many obvious benefits.

Pontifex, M. B., Fine, J. G., da Cruz, K., Parks, A. C., & Smith, A. L. (2014). VI. The Role of Physical Activity in Reducing Barriers to Learning in Children with Developmental Disorders. Monographs of The Society for Research in Child Development, 79(4), 93-118.

How important are quality teaching programs in early childhood development?

What a child learns in his/her earliest years in school help mold their brains for future lessons and experiences. Because of this, it is crucial that the schools and programs children are put into are stimulating, enriching, and educational according to their age. In her article “Teachers' Daily Interactions With Children: An Essential Ingredient in Effective Early Childhood Programs”, Bridget K. Hamre says, "To support positive development, early childhood settings must include responsive and cognitively stimulating daily interactions between teachers and children” (2014, pg 223).

In order to help children grow in many aspects of their lives, good teachers are necessary. But what makes a good teacher? A good teacher is attentive, caring, understanding, organized and can resolve situations of agitation quickly and as smoothly as possible.

Hamre makes a point that there must be a good relationship between teachers and students. She says, “Responsive teachers are highly engaged with children, attuned to their cues and needs, and able to respond in individualized ways that foster social, behavioral, and academic development” (Hamre, 2014 pg. 224). Teachers who pay attention to behavioral and cognitive cues are more likely to respond better to each child’s individual needs. For example, a child who is known to physically act out may show signs before doing so such as change in mood or reddening of the face. Teachers can pick up on these things and prevent situations of irritation. Furthermore, children who lack in cognitive abilities may need additional help from teacher, such as one-on-one attention. In these cases, teachers should take whatever steps necessary to see that the child gets a sufficient amount of assistance and has the opportunity to succeed academically.

Preschool is a crucial time and experience for children’s socialization. Having positive relationships with teachers and other students can help children gain social and emotional skills. It is critical for children to learn emotional regulation for when they face situations later in their lives that may be traumatic or distressful. When teachers are caring, warm, and comfortable around their students, it promotes an emotionally safe environment. When children are stressed about things at school or even at home and it can inhibit their grades, motivations, and goals in school, so it is important that teachers must provide emotional support.

Additionally, classrooms that are well-organized help children succeed academically and behaviorally because they feel more controlled. When it comes to a teacher’s basic job – instructing – they should be aware of certain goals they are aiming for. Teachers should be aiming to help the kids gain higher order thinking. They should promote an open dialogue with students and encourage conversations to not only improve teacher-student relationships, but also foster better communication skills. Teachers should give frequent and positive feedback when correcting students academically and behaviorally. If there is miscommunication or disputing between children or child and teacher, it should be handled as calmly and effectively as possible. Teachers should take all of these things into consideration in order to ensure that their students are on the best path for development.

Furthermore, for the most overall success for children, early education should take place in a stimulating and enriching environment that focuses on the needs of the children, not the teachers. Teachers should constantly try to get students involved and engaged in activities throughout each day. Additionally, Hamre mentions something that may be important to note, “Teachers may interact with children so infrequently because they believe that materials and peers are more important for learning than interacting with adults” (2014, pg. 225). Children who interact more with their teachers are bound to learn how to better speak to and act around adults and authority figures. They can learn manners and respect as well as communication and language skills.

Lastly, Hamre’s notes, “Despite recent examples of effective curricula being used at large scale in research studies (Morris et al., 2014), few early childhood programs use evidence-based, developmentally focused curricula (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2014) and more work is needed to understand how to put these types of curricula into practice” (2014, 227). Although these types of programs have been proven effective, they are not being implemented as often as they should be. Further, the balance between teacher and environment is crucial in itself. Teachers must be engaging and responsive or else the environment cannot reach its full potential. Conversely, if teachers are willing to put in a lot of effort, but the environment is lacking the proper stimulation and education because of funding or just lack of care, it is difficult for teachers to be totally helpful.

Overall, children with teachers who are more responsive develop better academically, emotionally, socially, and behaviorally. The things these kids learn in these early years can provide them with certain skills needed later in life in various situations they may encounter. The purpose of preschooling is to not only prepare the children to transition into higher level education later on, but also give them skills that will help them develop well in many aspects of their lives that extend past academics – particularly important, socio-emotional and behavioral skills. Having programs that are successful and effective in rendering these skills is essential to early childhood development; therefore, they should be taken seriously and implemented more often.

Hamre, B. K. (2014). Teachers' Daily Interactions With Children: An Essential Ingredient in Effective Early Childhood Programs. Child Development Perspectives, 8(4), 223-230. doi:10.1111/cdep.12090

Breastfeeding and Intelligence.

Emeline Brennan

PYSC PDE

Breastfeeding newborns and infants is a natural and  normal function.  But what happens when mothers continue to breastfeed  way past the age that is considered normal? Or what about those mothers who choose not to breastfeed at all? There are studies that link breastfeeding and intelligence, so where is the line to be drawn?

In an article by Kanazawa Satoshi, the author discusses how breastfeeding might and might not be related to the intelligence of a child. She first identifies the issue as somewhat controversial and widely debated. Although there is no "right" way to breastfeed or for how long into a child's development, studies have shown that children who are breastfed are believed to have a higher intelligence level than those who are not. Satoshi further indicates that studies have  shown that mothers doing the breastfeeding actually may be more intelligent than mothers who do not breastfeed their children. (Satoshi, Pg 1)

The author, however cautions that there may not be a direct and scientifically proven correlation between breastfeeding and more intelligent children. However, there is a direct correlation between infants health and breastfeeding, especially in meeting the infant's nutritional needs.  Breastfeeding gives infants an advantage on their health. The mothers producing milk at no cost lets even low income mothers have a healthy, well-fed infant. Studies show that an infant being breastfed is also less likely to have developmental problems. (Satoshi, Pg 1)

In this article, Kanazawa Satoshi highlights a study done in the United Kingdom on Breastfeeding and intelligence. This study focused on using Cognitive tests and many variables trying to extract the intelligence factor. This article talks about how it's hard to directly relate intelligence to breastfeeding even in this study because there is to many outside factors that could play a part in the intelligence of a child. (Satoshi, Pg 1)

However, the study did find that breastfeeding, when isolated as a factor, seems to have an effect on a child's intelligence. Between the ages of 7 and 16, outside factors have more of an affect on a child's intelligence. For example, the social class and the parents educational status do affect a child's intellectual growth. If a child is being raised in a lower class setting, they might have to be more focused on problems outside of school. If a child is growing up with uneducated parents they might not be able to get as much from those parents as they would if their parents were educated. (Satoshi, Pg 1)

Overall, there is no direct link between breastfeeding and a child's intelligence. We do however, know that it's boosts a child's health and that by itself has a big impact on development.

Kanazawa, S. (2015). Breastfeeding is positively associated with child intelligence even net of

parental IQ. Developmental Psychology, 51(12), 1683-1689. doi:10.1037/dev0000060

Are mental disorders found in pregnant mothers linked to problems in the baby’s development?

Mothers and their babies have significant emotional bonds even before the child is born – mothers will often read or sing to their babies before they are born. Babies become accustomed to their mother’s voice and therefore a small bond is already formed. Recently, a different kind of connection between mothers and their babies has been studied: the effects of a mother’s mental health during pregnancy on the mental and socio-emotional development of her baby in its first year.

A study done in Portugal published in 2012 studied babies’ emotional development within the first year of their lives when their mothers have one or more common mental disorders. Two hundred and four pregnant women were recruited from a hospital obstetrics department in their third trimester and their babies were tested at 3.5 and 12 months old.

The researchers used a series of diagnostic tests, including the Clinical Evaluation of Depression (CED) and Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), to identify symptoms of psychopathology in the pregnant women. The BSI evaluates symptoms of somatisation, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, depression anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychoticism, while the CED tests how well the mother functions in relation to work, cognition, and interpersonal relationships on a scale of four levels of severity. Next, the mental development of the infant at 3.5 and 12 months was evaluated. Socio-emotional development was also assessed at 12 months.

The research found that 27.5% of the women tested positive for diagnosable psychopathology with the Brief Symptom Inventory. 19.1% of the women were depressed according to the Inventory of the Clinical Evaluation of Depression. The results showed that the babies of women who showed symptoms of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and psychoticism had lower mental development scores at 3.5 months, including personal-social, performance, global scale, and hand-eye coordination.

Furthermore, babies of depressed or hostile mothers had lower mean scores in global mental development and personal-social relationships at 12 months. Additionally, the results showed that 20 babies who showed significant emotional issues all had mothers with diagnosable psychopathology, showing that these infants’ social and behavioral development was hindered.

Although not many studies have been done about this correlation and there were some limitations, such as small sample size and psychopathology symptom data was self-reported was by the mothers so bias might be present, this particular research does raise very notable points. The study was done in Portugal, but this should be looked into internationally, as there are pregnant women everywhere who may want to consider this research in regards to the development of their infants. The fact that so many of these pregnant women tested positive for psychopathology is also noteworthy. Does the hormonal changes and high levels of stress during pregnancy account for the changes in mothers’ mental stability? It is hard to tell within this study because the women were not tested prior to pregnancy for psychological disorders. Moreover, these tests should be consistently done in obstetrics and gynecology departments to ensure the best care for the mother and child.

Furthermore, some psychological disorders that persist after the mother births the baby can take a toll on the development of the infant. People who suffer from depression are often less motivated, concentrated, and focused. As some researched have suggested that depressed mothers may hold their baby less; therefore, the intimacy between mother and child is lacking and the infant’s mental, social, and behavioral development may suffer. Also, mothers who experience the effects of anxiety and depression may turn to alcohol or drugs as a coping mechanism, which can have an impact on the developing child. It can cause neglect and ruin motherly bonds; thus, affecting the child emotionally and even socially and behaviorally. In addition, the results showed that an infant’s mental development may be inhibited in specific areas such as hand-eye coordination, personal-social, locomotor, and performance when their mothers experience symptoms of certain mental illnesses. This also becomes a larger problem for the child as it grows neurologically because it puts it at a higher predisposition for psychological problems as well. Genetics is an important factor in the presence of mental illness.

It is important to have these sorts of tests done on pregnant mothers because the earlier these issues are detected, the better chance the child will have at developing at a normal and healthy rate and long-term problems, for the mother and child alike, can be eliminated or at least better controlled. The interpersonal and emotional aspects of pregnancy are very significant and need to be examined along with the medical ones. Additionally, tests should be done for children past their first-year of life in order to investigate long-term consequences and how their development progresses.

Ultimately, babies who scored higher in most of the subscales for mental development had mothers who tested negative for diagnosable psychopathology. These mothers were connected more intimately, sensitively, and emotionally with their infant. This created a nurturing environment that promoted healthy and consistent development.

This study is relevant to mothers, obstetrics and gynecology doctors, and psychologists alike. The researchers claim, “The identification of patterns of psychopathology in women during pregnancy may provide an important opportunity to begin a program of support for these women in order to optimze the mother-baby relationship, and, consequently the mental development of their children.” 

Citation (APA): Almeida, C. d., Sá, E., Cunha, F. F., & Pires, E. P. (2012). Common Mental Disorders During Pregnancy and Baby’s Development in the First Year of Life. Journal Of Reproductive & Infant Psychology, 30(4), 341-351. doi:10.1080/02646838.2012.736689

Is Breast Best for Intelligence?

Is there really evidence that breastfeeding is really the best when it comes to making babies smarter? In Brazil, one study done with 3,500 babies confirmed many beliefs about the benefits of breastfeeding. Babies that were breastfed for at least 12 months had a higher IQ, stayed in school longer, and had an overall higher income than those that were bottle-fed. Since there are a number of positive outcomes associated with breastfeeding, it is crucial that parents know these advantages. Health psychology researcher Eleanor Orlander, a Lecturer in Maternal and Child Health at City University London, said that better breastfeeding education is necessary to encourage more mothers to breastfeed. If a mother is aware of the demonstrated physical and cognitive benefits, she will have a more favorable attitude toward breastfeeding and will be more likely to stick with the process. However, while a mother may know the benefits of breastfeeding, there are many factors that can dissuade a mother from breastfeeding, including embarrassment or physical complications birth difficulties. To help encourage women in breastfeeding, Dr. Olander said that midwives can play an important role by promoting the advantages of breastfeeding, showing women how to breastfeed, and also understanding the women’s individual circumstances to provide woman-centred care.

However, other researchers doubt the strength of the observed benefits between breastfeeding and intelligence. A major problem with the research on breastfeeding and intelligence is that intelligence is also largely heritable, meaning that it is due to genetics rather than environment. Dr. Stuart Richie, a Postdoctoral Fellow in Cognitive Ageing at the University of Edinburgh, argues that most of the previous research done has not taken into account the effect of genes on the relationship: “To get around this problem, you can do one of two things; control for parental levels of intelligence, or compare siblings or twins within the same family to control for genetics. The authors of this study didn’t do either of these things in the paper, so we can’t know whether or not the apparent effect of breastfeeding on intelligence is just due to smarter parents tending to breastfeed more, for whatever reason.” Previous research that did use these controls has found no positive effects of breastfeeding.

Overall, until more experimental research is done, mothers should continue to do what they feel is necessary for them and their child, acknowledging the potential benefits but also noting the lack of definitive and conclusive research.